Сравнительные степени прилагательных и наречий (Comparison) Модальные глаголы (Modal Verbs) Цепочки существительных (Атрибутивная, номинативная группа) (Chains of nouns)

1.
Определение
– это член
предложения,
указывающий
на признак
предмета и
отвечающий
на вопрос «какой?».
Оно относится
к существительному.
В английском
языке наиболее
типичными
являются атрибутивные
группы A+N
(прилагательное
+ существительное),
например, an
important
problem
– важная проблема.
Однако очень
распространёнными
являются номинативные
атрибутивные
группы, где
определение
выражено
существительным
N1+N2,
например, space
missions
– космические
полёты или
полёты в космос.

Трудность
номинативных
групп N1+N2
для перевода
заключается
в том, что нужно
уметь найти
основное слово
в цепочек
существительных
с тем, чтобы
предшествующие
ему слова перевести
как определения.
Случаи, когда
N1
эквивалентно
существительному
в именительном
падеже, например,
signal-generator
– (сигнал-генератор)
очень редки.
Зачастую даже
двухкомпонентные
атрибутивные
группы нужно
переводить
целым придаточным
предложением,
например, pay
pocket
– конверт, в
котором выдаётся
заработная
плата.

В
научно-технической
литературе
наиболее
употребительными
являются
двухкомпонентные
атрибутивные
группы типа
N1+N2.

Номинативные
атрибутивные
группы в технической
литературе
могут включать
до шести существительных.
При переводе
таких цепочек
существительных,
несущее большую
смысловую
нагрузку, ставится
на первое место.
Например, water
energy pressure – давление
за счёт энергии
воды.

На
уровне предложения
выделение
атрибутивных
групп облегчается
наличием ряда
признаков. Так
суффикс у основного
(последнего
в цепочке)
существительного
помогает найти
стоящие перед
ним определения.

2. В
атрибутивной
группе, независимо
от её количественного
состава, основным
существительным
является последнее
слово, а предшествующие
ему – определениями.

3.
Эквивалентном
атрибутивной
группы N1+N2
является
сочетание двух
существительных,
соединённых
предлогом «of»,
причём они
могут подвергаться
взаимной
трансформации,
например, the
structure
reliability
= the
reliability
of
the
structure
= надёжность
конструкции.

4.
В атрибутивных
группах типа
A+
N1+N2,
где А – прилагательное,
и N1+N2+N3
основным является
последнее
существительное,
а остальные
– определения
к нему.

Перевод
A+
N1+N2
может
совпадать с
порядком следования
слов в атрибутивной
группе, например:
narrow
vacuum
vessel
– узкий вакуумный
сосуд. Однако
во многих случаях
при переводе
A+
N1+N2
и N1+N2+N3
необходимо,
как правило,
сначала перевести
основное (последнее
существительное),
а затем – определения
к нему. Порядок
перевода слов
в атрибутивных
группах может
быть различным
и определяется
по смыслу, например:
Low
temperature
physics
– физика низких
температур.

5. Выделение
атрибутивной
группы N1+N2
облегчается
наличием различных
суффиксов
существительного
N2
(-er
(-or),
-ment,
-ion
(-tion,
-sion)),
например: We
compare
the
levels
of
machine
vibrations
with
biological
systems.

6. Наличие
явного
сказуемого
(is, are, was, were, have, had, has, must, can, may) –
облегчает
поиск
атрибутивной
группы
N1+N2,
выступающей
в
функции
подлежащего,
например:
Sound waves are analyzed by the computer every one-hundredth of a
second.

7. Атрибутивная
группа
N1+N2
может
входить
в
состав
подлежащего
и
вводиться
при
помощи
различных
предлогов
(of, at, in), например:
A new type of laser beam has been developed by Byelorussian
scientists, где,
N1+N2
/laser beam/,
стоящее
перед
явным
сказуемым
«has been developed», вводится
в
группу
подлежащего
при
помощи
предлога
“of” (новый
тип
лазерного
луча).

8. За
атрибутивной
группой подлежащего
N1+N2
может стоять
неявное сказуемое.
Оно может быть
выражено словом
без предлогов,
местоимений
и т.д., согласующимся
с подлежащим
по правилу
противоположности
окончания s,
или словом с
–ed,
например: Microwave
energy
enters
the
cavity
through
a
hole
in
the
wall.
Слово enters
согласуется
по правилу
противоположности
“s”
со словом energy
и образует пару
подлежащего-сказуемого
(energy
enters),
следовательно,
слово microwave
(N1)
является определением
к слову energy
(N2)
и переводится
«энергия микроволн».

9. Атрибутивная
группа N1+N2
может входить
в состав второстепенных
членов предложения
– определения,
дополнения,
обстоятельства
и находиться
в его правой
части после
сказуемого,
например: The
glue
is
already
used
in
the
production
of
car
tires,
где N1+N2
(car
tires)
входит в состав
предложного
дополнения.

10
sentences:

1)
Liquid nitrogen can be contained only in a special vessel.

2)
Long range rockets were used in war since 1934.

3)
Steel pipes are more reliable than plastic pipes.

4)
Atomic power station Chernobyl exploded in 1986.

5)
Electric chair has been used in execution.

6)
Space ship is very expensive.

7)
Electric lamp is used in every house.

8)
Rock crystal is not a rare mineral.

9)
Laser printer can print about 20 pages per minute.

10)
Computer revolution began in 80s.

Text:

The
first man-made satellite was launched on October 4, 1957. It
demonstrated to the whole world the boundless opportunities of our
country in science and technology. People everywhere in the world now
know the Russian world “Sputnik”.

It was
Juri Gagarin’s flight in 1961 that began an era of manned space
flights on orbital space stations.

The
Soviet Union did much in the exploration and use of outer space for
the benefit of man. Highly qualified specialists performed scientific
experiments aboard space stations. They used the latest automatic
instruments and computers in their work.

The
USSR made great contribution to extensive interna­tional
cooperation in space research and to the use of outer space for
peaceful purposes.

Some years ago
nine socialist countries adopted a
joint space research program.

The Soviet and
international crews performed a large number of astrophysical,
geophysical and other research experiments. Space
flights are no longer regarded as being experiments by brave people
or even by individual countries. The Intercosmos of the socialist
community countries proves the advantages of joint efforts.

The Soviet Union is also successfully cooperating in
space research with France, India, the USA and Sweden.

It pays great
attention to
the manned flights program which helps to solve a number of
scientific and applied economic problems.

When we talk
about 2 things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they
are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and
different in other ways.

A       B

We
can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences. "A
is bigger
than B."

There are two
ways to form a comparative adjective:

short adjectives: add '-er'

long
adjectives: use 'more'

Tip.
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or
'more':

quiet > quieter/more quiet

clever >
cleverer/more clever

narrow >
narrower/more narrow

simple >
simpler/more simple

Exception!
The following adjectives have irregular forms:

good > better

well
(healthy) > better

bad >
worse

far
> farther/further

We use
comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or
1,000,000 things, only 2 things).

Often, the
comparative adjective is followed by 'than'.

Look
at these examples:

John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He
is taller than
John.

America
is big. But Russia is bigger.

I
want to have a more powerful
computer.

Is
French more difficult
than English?

If we talk about
the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them like this:

Comparison
is between 2
things: "A is bigger than B."

A       B

But
the superlative
is the extreme between 3 or more
things. "A is the biggest."

A       B       C

As
with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative
adjective:

short adjectives: add '-est'

long
adjectives: use 'most'

We also usually
add 'the' at the beginning.

Tip
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or
'most':

quiet > the quietest/most quiet

clever
> the cleverest/most clever

narrow
> the narrowest/most narrow

simple
> the simplest/most simple

Exception!
The following adjectives have irregular forms:

good > the best

bad >
the worst

far
> the furthest

We use a
superlative adjective to describe 1 thing in a group of 3 or more
things.

Look
at these examples:

John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris
is the tallest.

America,
China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the
biggest.

Mount
Everest is the highest
mountain in the world.

If we talk about
the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlatives
like this:

When we compare
one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

England is coldest
in winter. (not the coldest)

My
boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not
the most generous)

There
are 2 ways how the adverbs form their comparative and superlative.

1.
Adverbs in -ly
form their comparative and superlative with more
and
most.
(But not early)

Could
you say that more
slowly,
please?Tom can shoot the
most accurately.You
will just have to get up earlier.

2.
Adverbs with the same form as adjectives form their comparative and
superlative with -er
and
-est.

Sarah
run the fastest.

Some
adverbs form their comparative and superlative irregularly.

Comparison
as...as, less etc.

We
use as...as to
compare 2 things that are the same in the same way.I cannot do
crosswords as quickly as you.

Less
and least
are the opposites of more
and most.
The old man's son visits him less
often nowadays.

We
can repeat a comparative after and
to talk about a change in something else.They went faster
and faster down the hill.

We
use the+comparative to
talk about a change in one thing which causes a change in something
else.The more
you practise, the better you
will play.

Ten
sentences:

I
am not the tallest student in our group.

James
Hetfield plays electric guitar much better than I.

I
think that tomorrow it will be colder than today.

On
my girlfriend’s birthday I bought the most expensive present
I could afford.

Sevastopol
is the most picturesque city in Crimea.

T-1
line Internet connection is much faster than dial-up one, however
it is more expensive.

The
more I study, the better will be results.

On
average, people eat about twice as much proteins as they need.

Calculus
is simpler than statistics.

10) Mice are smaller than
elephants.

Text(~1500
symbols):

The first
computers with their electronics filled more
room than
up-to-date computers do. Photographs of early computers show men and
women in business suits and laboratory coats standing in the middle
of a room surrounded by a U-shape machine. In reality, people
operating and developing the
first
computers did not wear suits. Air-conditioning was poorer
than
people needed and they dressed in T-shirts and tennis shoes.

The
development of the transistor in 1948 made it possible to build
smaller
electronic devices. Computers became smaller
and smaller
and in our days personal computer can easily be fitted on the desk.
Notebooks have less
size than
personal computers and they widely used by businessmen. For the
most pretentious
people engineers created a Pocket personal computer that can find
room in pocket. Pocket PC is the
smallest
PC, on the other hand, it is the
slowest
and the least
powerful than
other personal computers. For people who do not need features like
Infrared or Bluetooth connection or color display that offers Pocket
PC, Palm designed small electronic organizer. It has fewer
features and it is less
powerful than
Pocket PC, but it is also less
expensive.

Computer
designers are trying to create more
friendly
interface computer, because it is sold better.
The one of the
most important
factors is a noise uttered by computer. Nobody likes noise and people
are ready to pay more
to buy quieter
PC.

The
progress never stops and smaller,
more powerful and quieter computers
will appear soon.

Can
and could
are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to
uses the verb "to be" as a main verb. It is not an
auxiliary verb, but we look at it here for convenience.

Can
is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use "can"
to:

talk about possibility and ability

make
requests

ask
for or give permission

subject
+ can + main verb

The main verb is
always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

Notice
that:

Can is
invariable. There is only one form of can.

The
main verb is always
the bare infinitive.

We
use can to
talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:

She can
drive a car.

John